Many countries and regions are affected by war, violence, and social unrest in the world. These regions typically also face extremely serious living and economic conditions. Conversely, in richer nations with more favorable conditions, people adhere more closely to ethical standards, the law, and human principles. A prime example is the countries of Northern Europe, which experience lower rates of crime and political unrest than many other nations and consistently rank among the happiest in the world [1]. It is striking that these countries, due to harsh climatic conditions and difficult access to resources, have at times had a history marked entirely by war, violence, and malevolence.
Dual nature of humans
The dual nature of human beings has been a subject of religion, mysticism, philosophy, and ethics throughout history. These schools of thought have acknowledged an animalistic dimension—characterized by malice, selfishness, deceit, envy, violence, and greed—alongside a dimension that aspires toward transcendence, defined by generosity, kindness, and self-sacrifice. At times, individuals may even surrender their own lives—the most fundamental instinct of all living creatures—for others or higher values. Religious traditions attribute the root of this duality to the unique creation of the human species. From this perspective, humans, like other animals, possess a physical body rooted in the Earth, driven by an instinctive desire for survival and a craving to secure greater access to food, water, and warm, safe shelter protected from predators.
The lives of our ancestors were largely spent in harsh and unforgiving environments, where survival was naturally the main priority. This response is also observed in many other animals. Much of what we now classify as moral vices actually consisted of behaviors aimed at individual survival and the acquisition of resources. However, in less hostile conditions—and when well-fed and at peace—humans become tamer; they begin to attend to the needs and suffering of others, prioritizing family and tribe but extending concern even to more distant fellow human beings. In such a state, humans develop a desire to understand the world, engage in artistic creation, and reflect on the universe around them.
Religions offer precepts and rituals to bring the animalistic nature under control and allow the transcendent dimension to flourish. Yet the malevolent aspect of human nature has, at times, even exploited religion to serve selfish, animalistic desires. Throughout history, countless wars and acts of bloodshed have unfolded under the guise of religion.
Does the origin of human duality lie in the brain?
For centuries, humans have considered themselves superior to other living beings due to their intelligence. However, a systematic review has shown that many abilities once thought to be “uniquely human”—such as tool-making, planning, and problem-solving—are also present, to some extent, in other animals. Nevertheless, humans exhibit exceptionally strong capabilities in areas such as recalling the past and imagining the future, tool use, problem-solving, social cognition, and communication. No single trait exclusive to humans can account for this superiority; this applies even to distinct capacities like language. We do not possess a single “magical” trait, nor has culture alone shaped us. Rather, our abilities reinforce one another—a synergy evident in both child development and the co-evolution of genes and culture [2].
It appears that the root of human superiority and behavior originates largely from the human brain’s larger and more complex cerebral cortex. The structure and genetics of this brain region are distinctly different from those of our close primate relatives, such as chimpanzees; they also exhibit significant differences compared to Neanderthals and even our own ancestors from thousands of years ago. This enables our species—through the expansion of collective culture—to obtain a more distinctly human standard for living. However, this region does not always exert complete control over the lower brain centers responsible for governing vital instincts (3).
When we are hungry, exposed to freezing conditions, have failed in competition for a mate, or face the threat of predation by animals or other humans, our sympathetic nervous system—the “fight-or-flight” mechanism—is instinctively activated. This system triggers metabolic changes to supply necessary fuel, modulates the immune system to combat infections and physical injuries, and induces cardiovascular responses to help us cope with these conditions. Psychologically, it generates stress and anxiety, activating specific brain regions such as the amygdala.
The amygdala disrupts the interaction between the higher brain centers—the neocortex—and the lower, more primitive structures. Consequently, the brain shifts toward rapid, instinctive decision-making, bypassing the slower, more deliberate, and effortful processes of reflection. In this state, an individual temporarily loses the capacity for analytical thinking and self-critique; instead, the brain’s primary function becomes making instinctive choices aimed at survival. Under these circumstances, moral priorities fade into the background [4].
However, given recent advancements in neuroscience, dividing the brain into “higher” human regions and “lower” animalistic ones is an oversimplification. In 1960, Paul D. MacLean proposed the “triune brain” theory—three distinct components: the reptilian brain, the limbic system, and the neocortex. He attributed instinctive behaviors like territoriality, dominance, mating, and deception primarily to the reptilian brain, suggesting these components operate largely independently.
In recent decades, however, this theory has faced significant criticism. We now understand the brain as an interconnected network, not a collection of independent layers. Emotions and cognition are deeply intertwined, and no single region can be considered solely responsible for any complex behavior [5].
When welfare becomes a weapon used against people
Human beings possess remarkable capacities for cooperation, compassion, and creativity, as well as powerful tendencies toward self-preservation, competition, and aggression. Which of these tendencies becomes dominant depends not only on our evolutionary heritage and brain organization but also on the psychological, social, and environmental conditions in which we live. Harsh conditions often breed greater violence and depravity, potentially turning affected societies into a “geopolitical ulcer” that creates challenges for other nations as well. Such circumstances may also drive individuals toward misery, crime, and lawlessness.
Furthermore, the political strategies of powerful countries—which undermine the welfare, education, healthcare, and housing of targeted nations—can distort the human values within those communities. Ultimately, these actions will return to haunt the perpetrators, much like a boomerang. Still, cruelty does not always arise from bad conditions; sometimes dangerous beliefs, using our finest mental capacities, can produce violence and chaos even in comfortable circumstances.