In a new study published in The Journal of Sex Research, researchers have cast new light on the intriguing world of paraphilic interests — unusual sexual fantasies that deviate from societal norms. Their findings reveal that the primary force driving individuals to act on these interests is sexual arousal itself. However, they also identified that age, gender, and certain personality traits known for their darker inclinations significantly influence the likelihood of such behaviors being acted upon.
Sexual fantasies are a universal aspect of human experience, encompassing a broad spectrum from the mundane to the unconventional. While many indulge in fantasies about unusual sexual behaviors, termed paraphilias, only a fraction pursue these interests in reality.
This discrepancy between fantasy and behavior has piqued the curiosity of researchers, leading to a closer examination of the factors influencing this concordance. Previously, studies have analyzed sexual behaviors and fantasies in isolation, overlooking the potential interplay between arousal and actual engagement in paraphilic activities.
“We know sexual fantasies are near-universal; almost everyone has them. The proportion of people who act on those fantasies is much smaller though,” said study author Melissa S. de Roos, an assistant professor at Erasmus University Rotterdam.
“As a forensic psychologist, I am particularly interested in exploring how the more deviant sexual interests develop, for example as a result of exposure to pornography. Particularly the ones that would be illegal if acted upon (e.g. zoophilia, pedophilia). If we better understand the process of how such interests develop, we can use this to inform prevention strategies.”
The researchers recruited 449 participants from Europe, North America, and Asia through academic and social media platforms, including a unique subset from FetLife, an online community for individuals with an interest in BDSM, fetishism, and kink. This diverse sample enabled a comprehensive exploration of paraphilic interests.
The participants completed the Paraphilias Scale, an 80-item measure that has been validated in prior research. This scale probes the extent of sexual arousal or repulsion participants experience towards fourteen different paraphilias, alongside their frequency of engagement in these behaviors. To further refine their understanding, the researchers differentiated between simple curiosity about a paraphilia and actual sexual arousal.
In addition to paraphilic interests, the researchers collected data on personality characteristics that might influence the transition from fantasy to behavior. The Dark Tetrad — comprising subclinical psychopathy, narcissism, Machiavellianism, and sadism — was assessed to explore their potential role in this dynamic. The researchers also measured factors like impulsivity and social desirability, which could skew the willingness to report sensitive or potentially stigmatized behaviors.
Sadism and masochism stood out as the most arousing and frequently engaged in paraphilias, aligning with previous research that suggests these interests are among the more common in the general population. For example, 86.9% of men and 66.3% of women reported engaging in sadism. Males were found to be more prone to act on their paraphilic interests, with the exception of masochism, which saw a higher inclination among females both in terms of arousal and participation.
“What we call ‘deviant’ is subjective, and a majority of people actually indicate they find practices such as masochism and sadism arousing, making it not so deviant at all,” de Roos told PsyPost. “However, anything that falls out of a narrowly defined norm is considered deviant, or a paraphilia. This leads to stigmatization and perpetuates a culture of silence about sex.”
“With this paper, we hope to also normalize fantasy and behaviors that are consensual, whilst also talking about those interests that would be considered illegal if acted upon. A paraphilia becomes a paraphilic disorder only if the person experiences distress as a result, or if they engage in paraphilic behavior without consent.”
The data revealed that while many people may experience arousal in response to paraphilic themes, only a subset pursues these interests in reality. The researchers found that sexual arousal played a key role in the connection between fantasizing about a paraphilic interest and actually engaging in the behavior. This was true across all fourteen interests, except for hebephilia and pedophilia.
Personality traits also emerged as significant influencers of paraphilic behavior.
Individuals scoring high in psychopathy were more inclined to act on paraphilic interests, especially those that might be considered harmful or involve illegal activities. This finding suggests that the impulsivity, lack of empathy, and sensation-seeking behaviors characteristic of psychopathy may lower inhibitions or ethical concerns that would typically prevent individuals from acting on certain sexual fantasies.
“These findings are consistent with an impulsive omnivorous sexual appetite among individuals who score high on psychopathy,” the researchers wrote.
Narcissism, characterized by a sense of grandiosity and entitlement, was also linked to paraphilic behaviors but in a more nuanced manner. High levels of narcissism predicted increased engagement in exhibitionism and voyeurism. This could be interpreted through the lens of narcissistic individuals’ desire for admiration and attention, driving them toward sexual behaviors that place them in the spotlight or allow them to assert power over others covertly.
Contrary to the other traits, Machiavellianism — characterized by manipulation and strategic planning — was associated with a lower likelihood of engaging in certain paraphilic behaviors such as voyeurism, exhibitionism, and sadism. This result might reflect the Machiavellian individual’s calculated approach to interpersonal relationships, avoiding behaviors that could pose significant risks to their social or personal standing.
“What surprised me is that different sexual behaviors are predicted by different variables. It is not the case that people who are very impulsive are more likely to engage in all sexual behaviors we assessed. Rather, it depends on the nature of that interest,” de Roos explained.
“For example, people are more likely to act upon interests that might constitute illegal behavior if acted upon (i.e., pedophilia, zoophilia) if they score score high on psychopathy. Being impulsive on the other hand, meant people were more likely to engage in other behaviors such as voyeurism or making obscene phone calls.
“Then finally, if people scored high on Machiavellianism (cynical, but more careful about taking risks) they were actually less likely to engage in behaviors that may be risky if getting caught, like exhibitionism. In other words, we shouldn’t simply group these interests together and label them deviant, but we should look at what makes them unique to better understand them.”
But the study, like all research, includes some caveats. “We relied on self-report, which means people may lie about their sexual interests,” de Roos said. “To minimize the effect of dishonesty, we also looked at social desirability, though, which did not really impact our findings.”
The study’s findings offer a deeper understanding of the factors that guide individuals from experiencing paraphilic arousal to engaging in paraphilic behaviors. By highlighting the role of arousal, gender differences, and the influence of dark personality traits, the research contributes to a more nuanced view of human sexuality.
“I want to contribute to improving our understanding of when and why people act upon sexual interests, particularly the more extreme ones,” de Roos told PsyPost. “Within this area, I am also interested in the role exposure to pornography plays, and the extent to which people may get bored of ‘regular’ pornography and start seeking more extreme or taboo content. More generally, I hope we can broaden the scope of what we find normal to reduce some of the stigma surrounding more varied sexual practices.”
“Most of the interests we measured are not problematic, so long as they are engaged in with mutual consent and the person is not distressed as a result of having those interests. I in no way want to stigmatize safe, sane and consensual sexual practices that may fall outside the ‘norm.”
The study, “When Kinks Come to Life: An Exploration of Paraphilic Behaviors and Underlying Predictors,” was authored by Melissa S. de Roos, Nicholas Longpré, and J. D. M. van Dongen.